Trends in Hiv Prevalence Essay Example for Free

Trends in Hiv Prevalence Essay ABSTRACT HIV prevalence in the world is becoming increasingly high. As of mid-1998, the HIV/AIDS pandemic continues to spread unequally around the world. In many cities in sub-Saharan African countries more than a quarter of young and middle-aged adults are infected with HIV, whereas in most developed countries, the number of annual AIDS cases continues to decrease. The status and of HIV epidemics in most other areas of the world remains uncertain because of inadequate data on the prevalence of HIV-risk behaviours. Hence, this paper presentation seeks to examine the trends of HIV prevalence across the world taking all the continents into consideration. INTRODUCTION HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus is a lentivirus, and like all viruses of this type, it attacks the immune system. Lentiviruses are in turn part of a larger group of viruses known as retroviruses. The name lentivirus literally means slow virus because they take such a long time to produce any adverse effects in the body. They have been found in a number of different animals, including cats, sheep, horses and cattle. However, the most interesting lentivirus in terms of the investigation into the origins of HIV is the Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) that affects monkeys, which is believed to be at least 32,000 years old. It is now generally accepted that HIV is a descendant of a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus because certain strains of SIVs bear a very close resemblance to HIV-1 and HIV-2, the two types of HIV. HIV-2 for example corresponds to SIVsm, a strain of the Simian Immunodeficiency Virus found in the sooty mangabey (also known as the White-collared monkey), which is indigenous to western Africa. The more virulent, pandemic strain of HIV, namely HIV-1, was until recently more difficult to place. Until 1999, the closest counterpart that had been identified was SIVcpz, the SIV found in chimpanzees. However, this virus still had certain significant differences from HIV There are a number of factors that may have contributed to the sudden spread of HIV, most of which occurred in the latter half of the twentieth century and these includes: * Blood Transfusion * Drug Use * Mother-to-Child Transfusion ORIGIN OF HIV The origin of AIDS and HIV has puzzled scientists ever since the illness first came to light in the early 1980s. For over twenty years it has been the subject of fierce debate and the cause of countless arguments, with everything from a promiscuous flight attendant to a suspect vaccine programme being blamed. The first recognized case of AIDS occurred in the USA in the early 1980s. A number of gay men in New York and California suddenly began to develop rare opportunistic infections and cancers that seemed stubbornly resistant to any treatment. At this time, AIDS did not yet have a name, but it quickly became obvious that all the men were suffering from a common syndrome. The discovery of HIV, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, was made soon after. While some were initially resistant to acknowledge the connection (and indeed some remain so today), there is now clear evidence to prove that HIV causes AIDS. So, in order to find the source of AIDS, it is necessary to look for the origin of HIV, and find out how, when and where HIV first began to cause disease in humans. In February 1999 a group of researchers from the University of Alabama announced that they had found a type of SIVcpz that was almost identical to HIV-1. This particular strain was identified in a frozen sample taken from a captive member of the sub-group of chimpanzees known as Pan Troglodytes (P. t. troglodytes), which were once common in west-central Africa. The researchers (led by Paul Sharp of Nottingham University and Beatrice Hahn of the University of Alabama) made the discovery during the course of a 10-year long study into the origins of the virus. They claimed that this sample proved that chimpanzees were the source of HIV-1, and that the virus had at some point crossed species from chimps to humans. Their final findings were published two years later in Nature magazine. In this article, they concluded that wild chimps had been infected simultaneously with two different simian immunodeficiency viruses which had viral sex to form a third virus that could be passed on to other chimps and, more significantly, was capable of infecting humans and causing AIDS. These two different viruses were traced back to a SIV that infected red-capped mangabeys and one found in greater spot-nosed monkeys. They believe that the hybridisation took place inside chimps that had become infected with both strains of SIV after they hunted and killed the two smaller species of monkey. They also concluded that all three groups of HIV-1 namely Group M, N and O (see our strains and subtypes page for more information on these) came from the SIV found in P. t. troglodytes, and that each group represented a separate crossover event from chimps to humans. It has been known for a long time that certain viruses can pass between species. Indeed, the very fact that chimpanzees obtained SIV from two other species of primate shows just how easily this crossover can occur. As animals ourselves, we are just as susceptible. When a viral transfer between animals and humans takes place, it is known as zoonosis. The most commonly accepted theory on how zoonosis took place, and how SIV became HIV in humans is that of the hunter. In this scenario, SIVcpz was transferred to humans as a result of chimps being killed and eaten or their blood getting into cuts or wounds on the hunter. Normally the hunters body would have fought off SIV, but on a few occasions it adapted itself within its new human host and became HIV-1. The fact that there were several different early strains of HIV, each with a slightly different genetic make-up (the most common of which was HIV-1 group M), would support this theory: every time it passed from a chimpanzee to a man, it would have developed in a slightly different way within his body, and thus produced a slightly different strain. An article published in The Lancet in 20044 , also shows how retroviral transfer from primates to hunters is still occurring even today. In a sample of 1099 individuals in Cameroon, they discovered ten (1%) were infected with SFV (Simian Foamy Virus), an illness which, like SIV, was previously thought only to infect primates. All these infections were believed to have been acquired through the butchering and consumption of monkey and ape meat. Discoveries such as this have led to calls for an outright ban on bush meat hunting to prevent simian viruses being passed to humans. Others theories include: * The oral polio vaccine (OPV) theory * The contaminated needle theory * The colonialism theory * The conspiracy theory Four of the earliest known instances of HIV infection are as follows: * A plasma sample taken in 1959 from an adult male living in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. * A lymph node sample taken in 1960 from an adult female, also from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. * HIV found in tissue samples from an American teenager who died in St. Louis in 1969. A 1998 analysis of the plasma sample from 1959 suggested that HIV-1 was introduced into humans around the 1940s or the early 1950s.   In January 2000, the results of a new study16 suggested that the first case of HIV-1 infection occurred around 1931 in West Africa. This estimate (which had a 15 year margin of error) was based on a complex computer model of HIVs evolution. However, a study in 200817 dated the origin of HIV to between 1884 and 1924, much earlier than previous estimates. The researchers compared the viral sequence from 1959 (the oldest known HIV-1 specimen) to the newly discovered sequence from 1960. They found a significant genetic difference between them, demonstrating diversification of HIV-1 occurred long before the AIDS pandemic was recognised. The authors suggest a long history of the virus in Africa and call Kinshasa the â€Å"epicentre of the HIV/AIDS pandemic† in Central Africa. They propose the early spread of HIV was concurrent with the development of colonial cities, in which crowding of people increased opportunities for HIV transmission. If accurate, these findings imply that HIV existed before many scenarios (such as the OPV and conspiracy theories) suggest. Until recently, the origins of the HIV-2 virus had remained relatively unexplored. HIV-2 is thought to come from the SIV in Sooty Mangabeys rather than chimpanzees, but the crossover to humans is believed to have happened in a similar way (i.e. through the butchering and consumption of monkey meat). It is far rarer, significantly less infectious and progresses more slowly to AIDS than HIV-1. As a result, it infects far fewer people, and is mainly confined to a few countries in West Africa. In May 2003, a group of Belgian researchers published a report18 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. By analysing samples of the two different subtypes of HIV-2 (A and B) taken from infected individuals and SIV samples taken from sooty mangabeys, Dr Vandamme concluded that subtype A had passed into humans around 1940 and subtype B in 1945 (plus or minus 16 years or so). Her team of researchers also discovered that the virus had originated in Guinea-Bissau and that its spread was most likely precipitated by the independence war that took place in the country between 1963 and 1974 (Guinea-Bissau is a former Portuguese colony). Her theory was backed up by the fact that the first European cases of HIV-2 were discovered among Portuguese veterans of the war, many of whom had received blood transfusions or unsterile injections following injury, or had possibly had relationships with local women. TRENDS IN HIV PREVALENCE Since 2001, MEASURE Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) have included HIV testing in 31 countries. In 13 of these countries testing has been included in two surveys, which provides an opportunity to examine trends. However, trend data must be viewed with caution, as only some changes are statistically significant. Trends in HIV Prevalence In the charts below, changes in HIV prevalence that are statistically significant are marked with an asterisk and a star.   While it may appear that HIV prevalence has decreased in most countries, these decreases are only statistically significant in the Dominican Republic, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Tanzania, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. This means that in these countries, the change is large enough that it is unlikely that the decrease is due to chance alone; it probably represents true change in the HIV prevalence in the population. In some countries, such as Tanzania, the decrease is statistically significant for the population as a whole, and for men, but not for women. In Cameroon, Burkina Faso, and Zimbabwe, HIV prevalence has decreased among both women and men. DHS surveys have not detected any change in HIV prevalence in Mali, Senegal, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Lesotho, or Zambia. What does this mean? Because HIV prevalence is a measure of all HIV infections in a population, a decrease in HIV prevalence could indicate that fewer people are becoming infected, and/or that more people with HIV have died in a population. Similarly, an increase in HIV prevalence could point to more new infections, and/or could indicate an increase in HIV-positive individuals living longer on anti-retroviral therapy. TRENDS IN HIV PREVALENCE IN ASIA PACIFIC REGION With over 60 percent if the worlds population, the Asia-Pacific Region presents a wide diversity of HIV-related risk environments, in terms of behavioural, political and cultural factors. Within the framework of this diversity, there has also been a wide range of HIV epidemics and responses, both across and within countries. It is not therefore possible to present a simple analysis of the actual and potential occurrence of HIV infection in this vast region. Our understanding of the HIV epidemic and its determinants in the Asia-Pacific Region has improved substantially over the past 3-5 years, as a number of countries have implemented comprehensive surveillance systems for HIV prevalence, and sexual and injecting risk behaviours. Despite these advances, a number of countries still have a limited capacity to assess the occurrence of HIV infection and related behaviours, and to monitor the impact of interventions. A recent factor of importance in the Asia-Pacific environment has been the economic tumult of the past year. While various predictions have been made of the potential impact on the HIV epidemic, it is not possible to state with any certainty whether their net effect will be to increase or decrease the incidence of risk behaviour or HIV transmission. Since extensive HIV transmission has been a very recent phenomenon in a number of Asia-Pacific countries, there has so far been little experience with the care and support of people with HIV-related illness. Apart from Australia, Thailand and Japan, few countries have a healthcare workforce, which is adequately prepared to care for substantial numbers of people developing HIV-related illness. Without simplifying too much, it is possible to classify the differing patterns of HIV transmission into broad categories, based on available surveillance data. In Australia and New Zealand, the virtually all HIV transmission has been through sex between men, and the incidence of transmission via this route has long been recognized as having declined substantially in the 1980s. In a few countries, such as Thailand, Cambodia and parts of Myanmar and India, heterosexual transmission has been extensive, mediated through large-scale sex industries but extending now to the regular partners of sex workers male clients. Some countries have HIV epidemics among injecting drug users (IDU) with limited associated heterosexual transmission. These include countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, and some areas of India and China. Other countries have limited, but well documented spread of HIV infections, such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea. Several countries have not reported substantial numbers of HIV infection, but do not appear to have comprehensive, ongoing surveillance systems. Papua New Guinea, Pakistan and Bangladesh are countries which may have a substantial risk environment, and need to strengthen their surveillance activities. The analysis of HIV epidemic trends in the region becomes more meaningful when a focus is placed on populations whose cultural and social affinity and networks transcend geopolitical borders. A new geography of HIV/AIDS in the region then emerges that helps recognize the foci of intense HIV spread. These include large metropolitan areas in western and southern India (Mumbai, Chinnai); the India/Nepal border area; the larger Golden Triangle, which reaches out to northern Thailand, eastern Myanmar, but also encompasses the areas of Manipur in India and Yunnan in China; and the Mekong delta area, which includes Cambodia and southern Vietnam. To gain better understanding of the dynamics of HIV epidemics, factors of affinity between populations as well as mobility patterns must be explored and mapped out.

Impact of Supplementing the Diet with Extra Creatine :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Proffesor’s comment: I was very pleased by how thoroughly this student delved into the topic of creatine supplementation for this literature review. His initial draft was organized in a way that indicated he had control of the material and was able to put it together logically . He showed a strong sense of his audience’s needs by grouping the results of the research articles under clear topics. Introduction The human body uses creatine phosphate to produce ATP, the primary energy supply for working muscles. Creatine phosphate is formed through an enzymatic process from creatine, which is composed of the amino acids arginine, methionine, and glycine. Creatine is produced primarily in the liver, but may also be made in the pancreas and kidneys. Humans both metabolize and synthesize approximately two grams of creatine a day, therefore maintaining homeostasis. Creatine can also be consumed in certain foods. The richest sources are found in animal proteins such as red meat and fish. However, concentrations in these foods are relatively low: one pound of red meat contains about two grams of creatine. Researchers have found that supplementing the diet with extra creatine, beyond what the majority of people ingest from their everyday diets, can produce significant effects. Creatine supplementation can have potential benefits on body composition, athletic performance, and disease conditions. However, an optimal protocol for supplementing creatine has not yet been discovered. Creatine supplementation has sound possible short and long term side effects. A greater overall understanding of creatine supplementation will aid individuals and physicians to make better informed decisions about whether or not to use creatine supplements. Benefits Creatine has dramatic effects on body composition. Subjects who supplemented with creatine increased total body mass and fat-free mass while fat mass remained constant (Kreider et al., 1998; Grindstaff et al., 1997; Volek et al., 1997). Three mechanisms are responsible for this change. First, consuming excess creatine results in greater intramuscular creatine stores (Casey et al., 1996). Water accompanies this excess creatine into muscle cells. Thus, more water can be stored within the muscle. Second, protein synthesis may be enhanced due to the increased muscle cell volume. This enhancement may lead to accumulation of protein within the muscle fiber. Finally, since creatine phosphate produces ATP, the amount of energy stored within the muscle is increased (Casey et al., 1996). This increase may lead to an enhanced capacity for workouts that use ATP as the primary energy source, such as short duration, intense muscle contractions as in weight lifting.

“Taking Responsibility”

Robbery, rape, assault, murder, theft, and vandalism: These are just a handful of the crimes committed by children today. Whether the crime be violent or non violent, the crime rate of adolescents under eighteen has increased. Crimes like these have caused people to ponder the question: Should parents be responsible, legally and financially for crimes committed by their children under eighteen? Some believe that parents should not be held accountable for the crime their child commits.Others believe that parents should be responsible for their children’s actions. Parents should be held responsible for their children’s crimes because parents should teach their children what is right from wrong at a young age and they should be more involved in their children’s lives and be concerned with the people and places that he or she is associated with. On the other hand, some people determine that if a child under eighteen commits a crime, their parents should not take resp onsibility for it.When parents discipline a child too much, the child is likely to be rebellious and go against their parents’ wishes. There are parents that have done all that they could and in spite of that, their child gets into criminal activity. The opposing view also believes that even when parents are involved in their child’s life, there are other factors that corrupt a child into committing crime. Society and the media have a great influence on how children act. Peer pressure is another factor that may cause a child to commit a crime.Overall, a parent cannot control their child’s decisions and should not be held liable for their children’s actions. Parents should be held responsible legally and financially for crimes committed by their children under age eighteen because parents should teach their children what is right from wrong at an early age. If parents do not discipline their children for doing the wrong thing, how will their children ever learn from their mistakes? (Rhetorical question) Ministers believe that problems on the street often begin at home.When children have a dysfunctional family or bad influences at home, they are more likely to be involved in criminal activity. If the parents set a bad example for their children they are likely to follow it. It is the parents’ responsibility to let their children know what is not right. If parents make the effort to direct their children toward the right path in life, they will not be misguided or end up following criminal activity. (Cause and effect) If parents do not do their job in teaching their children hat is right from wrong, their children will never learn and assume that it is okay to repeat their false actions. Parents also have the responsibility of elucidating what is right from wrong to their children so that their children can grow up to become successful individuals. Parents should be held responsible legally and financially for the crimes their c hildren commit because parents should be involved in their child’s life and be concerned with the people and places that he or she is associated with.Parents should be familiar with their children’s friends because a child is like a parrot; they repeat the actions of their friends and are easily influenced by them. (Metaphor) If a child is friends with someone who is doing drugs or making bad choices, they are likely to be caught following in their footsteps. It would be wonderful for parents to dump their children in the streets, but they should know where their children are at all times. Satire) Parents need to question their children before they go out: they need to know who they are going to be with and where they are going to be. When parents are informed about the places their children spend time they can contact them and there is a smaller chance that they will be doing something illegal. Therefore, parents should be responsible legally and financially for crime s committed by their children under eighteen because as a parent, their job is to make sure that their children are safe and successful.Parents should have a close or good relationship with their children and they should be concerned with their children’s lives. They must also make the time to get to know the type of people that their children spend time with. If parents do this, not only will they benefit, but their children will benefit as well. Parents will be leading their child to live a pleasant life, striding away from crime and toward a better future. (Tone-Positive)

Massive Genocide of Jews - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1704 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2019/04/26 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Holocaust Essay Did you like this example? The Holocaust was a massive genocide of Jews that took place from 1933 to 1945, but had everlasting effects on people everywhere. The experiences that these Jews endured were horrific and inhumane. There were many things that led up to this devastating time, many unbelievable stories of oppression, and many people who worked tirelessly to put a stop to it. While so many people played a part in making this genocide happen, it all began with a man named Adolf Hitler. Hitler was living in Vienna pursuing his passion for art when he happened upon politics; this is where he began developing anti-Semitic ideologies. He later moved to Munich, right before World War I began. He served in the war and was injured and taken to Pasewalk to recover. When he found that the Germans had surrendered, he was enraged and believed it to be the fault of the betrayers in Germany that were not patriotic enough. This was a popular belief in Germany and his like-mindedness with the German people would help him rise to power. Hitler joined a group called the German Workers Party that shared many of his anti-Semitic and nationalist beliefs; this group would later be called the Nazi Party. These were his first supporters when he began trying to gain power. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Massive Genocide of Jews" essay for you Create order Hitler tried to rise to power and put his beliefs into effect more than once, and ended up in jail for treason after trying to take over with force. In jail, he wrote Mein Kampf, which was a book outlining the way he believed the country should be ran. This book, which gave Hitler the exposure he needed to rise in popularity with the German people, touched on military expansion, elimination of impure races and dictatorial authoritarianism (Adolf Hitler: Man and Monster). While many agreed with Hitlers beliefs, some still wonder how he managed to gain power being the twisted person that he was. Hitler used many tactics of manipulation to win the people of Germany over. He was very charming and had a way with words, which he used to his advantage when he publicly spoke. He used propaganda techniques and played on the fears of the Germans as their economy was on a downward spiral and there were few jobs. As his popularity consistently rose, the president fearfully named Hitler the Germa n Chancellor in 1933. He strengthened his power through the Enabling Act and became a dictator. Once he had the support of the military, he knew that he had finally gained total control. Once Hitler realized that he had finally gotten enough power to put his plan into place, he began taking action towards taking Jews rights away. At first, Hitler slowly took their rights to test the waters; he began by boycotting Jewish businesses, burning their books, excluding them from the military, making it so that the police could not help them, and so much more (Anti-Jewish Decrees). One of many oppressive actions Hitler took towards the Jews was passing the Nuremberg Race Laws in September of 1935. The Nuremberg Race Laws institutionalized many of the racial theories underpinning Nazi ideology and provided the legal framework for the systematic persecution of Jews in Germany; it defined Jews legally as anyone with three to four Jewish grandparents which ended up including many Germans (Nuremberg Race Laws, USHMM). From 1935 to 1936, Jews right to vote was taken away as well as their citizenship in Germany, some Jewish students were kicked out of schools so that they could not continue with their education, and Jews were even banned from many public places in Germany. Still, Hitler wanted to single out the Jews even more and separate them from the Germans as much as possible. In 1938, he made it so that Jews that did not have Jewish first names had to add Israel or Sara to their names so that they were more easily identifiable as Jews. Later in 1938, all of the Jews passports were stamped with a J so that they were even more easily identifiable (German Jews Passports Declared Invalid, USHMM). Year after year, more and more of their civil rights were stripped from them. On the night of November ninth, 1938, Nazis went on a rampage destroying Jewish homes, businesses, schools, synagogues, and even killing around a hundred Jews; this was called Kristallnacht, or the Night of Broken Glass. In 1939, Hitler forced all Jews to wear the Star of David, including Jews in any of the territories he had taken over since coming to power. This, again, made the Jews even more easily identifiable in order to target them and make them feel inferior. Eventually Jew s were separated even further from the rest of the population as they were secluded in ghettos. All of these things were tactics used to make the non-Jews feel as if the Jews were not human and less than them to work with Hitlers plan of mass extermination of Jews. Concentration camps were the most memorable and vile way that the Nazis mistreated the Jews. Jews were sent to these camps starting in 1933 and going into full effect in 1942. These camps were where Jews were taken to do hard labor and be exterminated. They were mistreated by the Nazis running the camps and were very malnourished. They were separated from their families in kept in horrid living conditions. Many were killed in gas chambers after being worked to near death. Some managed to make it out alive thanks to a few memorable people who risked their lives for the greater good and some live on today to recount the gory details. One man named Oskar Schindler saved over a thousand Jews from death at a concentration camp. He was a German businessman who gained the trust of German officials over time as he was always a very likeable man. Because of this, the German officials allowed Jews in decent health to work in Schindlers factory; Jews provided cheap labor that he needed at his new business. Schindler gave the Jews safe working conditions and bribed officials to let the Jews continue working for him time and time again when the Jews were to be taken to concentration or labor camps. He eventually convinced officials to make his business a labor camp and kept over a thousand Jews there. He kept them safe from the impending death that undoubtedly awaited them at concentration camps until the end of the war in 1945. Nicholas Winton was another heroic and brave man who saved hundreds of Jewish children during the Holocaust. He was a stock-broker from London who saved hundreds of Jewish children from Prague and Slovakia. He convinced the governments of Britain and Sweden to take in these refugee children, but the governments had a cost. They asked for fifty pounds per child and they asked that he find the children foster homes. He also had to find the money to pay for the transportation of children whose parents could not afford to pay for it. He worked by day and spent the night time raising money to save the children and finding families that were willing to take in these refugees. He hung posters of the children to try to elicit an emotional response from the people of his country whether that be to help out financially or to offer their home to one of the children. Once enough money had been raised, Winton had children transported by plane and train to remove them from harms way and ultimately save over six hundred childrens lives. While the Holocaust seems like a historical memory from the past, many Holocaust survivors are still alive today to share their stories. One resilient woman named Ibi Ginsburg shared the chilling story of her experience at an Auschwitz concentration camp. Ibi grew up in a very accepting community, and had trouble understanding why the Nazis were so very discriminatory towards herself and the other Hungarian Jews she was surrounded by. After being secluded in a ghetto for weeks in March of 1944, Ibi and her family along with many of the other Jews in the ghetto they lived in were told they would be brought to Germany to be put to work; this was a lie told by the Nazis to keep order in the ghetto. Ibi was brought to Auschwitz Birkenau where she was then separated from all of her family but her older sister. She and many other Jews that were sent to concentration camps remained fearful throughout their time there not only for themselves but for their families as they had no idea where t hey were sent or even if they were alive. As for Ibi and her sister, they had their heads shaved, their clothes were taken from them, and they were assigned a number as their new identity. They had small wooden rooms with concrete floors and wooden bunks to call home. They were eventually sent to a labor camp only to be over-worked and under-fed. Finally, in May of 1945, she and her sister were liberated by the Americans and they found that their father had survived as well, but their family was not quite as lucky. Ibis mother and younger sisters were taken to a gas chamber and killed immediately after being separated from their family at the concentration camp. Sadly, this was a common fate for many Jews during this time. Ibi, like many other Jews after the Holocaust, never returned to her home country as she knew many of her friends and family suffered a tragic fate and held too many unsettling feelings and memories towards what used to be her home. (Surviving Auschwitz, HSFA) While the Holocaust was a terrible tragedy that most wish had never happened, it is still a part of history and must not be forgotten, as history stands as a means to teach lessons. One must look back on this horrible event as a mass act of discrimination and note how these acts affected millions of people and still affect people to this day. The Jews went through being treated as if they were not human; they were starved, over-worked, stripped of their basic human rights, and killed. History must not repeat itself and that is the lesson to be learned.